Colombia Climber

Huayhuash Treks and Climbs

GENERAL HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN PERU

General safety standards. In Peru safety standards in almost every aspect of life are lower than at home. Peru is a less developed country and the resources are not available in many situations to live and work to the same high safety standards that we have in the UK. It is also fair to say that the population as whole has a less informed and a more laid-back attitude to the risks of everyday life.

Natural hazards. The areas to be visited are in an area of considerable earthquake hazard. Severe weather could also cause catastrophic landslides and flooding, though this is less likely at the time of year we travel.

Driving. Driving standards and road and vehicle maintenance standards are not as good as they are in the UK and Europe. There will be additional risks of death or injury in a traffic accident from these.

Action - Expedition leaders should use recommended contractors whenever possible, they should visually inspect all vehicles before use and be prepared to use an alternative vehicle if necessary. They should monitor the drivers performance and be prepared to use an alternative driver if necessary.

Crime. Peru has relatively high crime rates. All Western tourists are at an increased risk of being victims. There is a small risk of vehicle hijack and robbery. There is a small risk of serious crime, including violent or sexual assault and mugging, particularly in Lima. There is a considerable risk of minor theft and pickpocketing in Lima and a small risk in more remote areas.

Action - Expedition leaders should obtain up-to-date security advice immediately before the expedition departs. Expedition leaders should brief members with any relevant local security advice and general personal safety advice. Expedition members should behave in a polite, courteous and respectful manner towards all people in Peru. Expedition members should walk confidently and remain alert at all times, especially in busy areas of towns. Expedition members should leave valuables in the hotel safe whenever possible and otherwise carry them in a concealed body belt or neck purse. Expedition members will be safer if back in the hotel by 9.p.m. Expedition members should remain within the safer central areas, particularly after dark. Expedition members should walk in a group whenever possible and always walk in a group after dark, or take a taxi. Expedition members should drink only a small amount of alcohol and completely avoid any contact with illegal drugs. In the event of any incident members should not attempt to act heroically; hand over money - it is wise always to have approx. $20-30 in your pocket for this purpose.

Hotels. Fire safety standards are not as high as at home. Exits may not be clearly marked or accessible. Construction standards and electrical safety standards are not as good as at home. In small mountain villages fire-safety and construction standards are virtually non-existent.

Action - Expedition members should not use any form of naked flame indoors (candles, stoves, smoking!). Expedition members should familiarise themselves with the best way to escape from the building before retiring overnight and keep a torch handy.

Hygiene. Food and general hygiene standards are not as high in Peru as at home. Some stomach and/or bowel upsets are likely and more serious conditions such as giardia and amoebic dysentery are possible.

Action - Expedition members should have all vaccinations and inoculations as recommended by their GP. Expedition members should drink only bottled water or water that has been recently purified (e.g. by iodine, filtration or boiling). Members should avoid the following foods when prepared in cafes and restaurants: ice and ice-cream, seafood, lettuce and other raw salads, any food that is not freshly cooked. Expedition leaders and members should ensure a good standard of hygiene is practised at campsites, especially with regard to drinking water and toilet.

First Aid

Action - All UK leaders should have a current first aid certificate and carry, or have access to a first aid kit at all times.

Hospital and Medical Care. In the event of an accident or injury the hospital or medical care available will not be at as high a standard as at home.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN THE MOUNTAINS OF PERU

On previous occasions running this itinerary about 1 in 10 clients have had to be evacuated from the mountains, most often with altitude illness - this should be borne in mind when planning the first few days of the itinerary.

Camping. There is a risk of fire from stoves and candles. There is a risk of theft in a few areas if items are left outside tents.

Action - All leaders and members should take great care when cooking and refilling stoves. Whenever possible this should be done outside or in a specifically designed mess tent. Torches should be used instead of candles in expedition members tents. Keep all belongings inside tents at night except at high mountain camps.

Minor slips and falls. All members will be exposed to a risk of slipping due to steep, uneven and unstable ground. Leaders and members should take the usual precautions to avoid such risks.

Remoteness. The expedition will be up to two days walk and one days drive from professional medical help for much of the time. Evacuation will probably only be possible by foot or on horseback. Helicopter rescue is unlikely, there is no formal service in Peru and parts of the itinerary are above the operating ceiling for many helicopters.

Action - A spare horse should be provided in case evacuation is necessary. Expedition leaders should allow a higher than normal margin of safety for all activities undertaken in remote areas.

Altitude. At high altitudes there is an increased risk of medical problems, most obviously altitude illness. Action - Leaders should visually and verbally check all members regularly for signs or symptoms of altitude illness. Clients must be honest with leaders about signs or symptoms they are experiencing. Any type of illness observed at altitude (above 3500m) should be considered as possibly indicative of an underlying altitude illness. It should be treated as such by descending if there is no improvement within 24 hours. Leaders should be familiar with methods of diagnosing altitude illness and methods of treating it (principally by early descent). Leaders should operate the expedition in accordance with the needs of those who are having problems and not those who aspire to go higher. Leaders should be aware that in many parts of the Huayhuash circuit the easiest evacuation will require going up and over a higher pass and they should therefore operate a higher margin of safety (i.e. earlier evacuation) when assessing any potential altitude illness on this itinerary.

Weather - There are very slight risks from bad weather on the whole itinerary. Night time temperatures are typically 0ºC to -5ºC. It can snow at any time of year in the Huayhuash mountains and snow will lie as low as 4000m.

Action - Warm clothes, (including fleece or down jacket, windproofs, hat and gloves) should be carried by all expedition members themselves at all times. Leaders should personally carry a sleeping bag or a tent every day in case of bad weather combined with some other problem. Leaders should watch out for deteriorating weather and be prepared to change plans if necessary.

Rockfall - On Leon Huacanan and Suerococha (Diablo Mudo) there are very slight risks from rockfall in areas of rock scrambling below the glaciers on Leon and on Rasac. Expedition members should be briefed to move carefully over this, with due consideration for other members.

Action - Leaders should remain alert to this hazard and assess all areas for the risk of rockfall. On continuous steep ground expedition members should be briefed to walk carefully with regard to dislodging stones and to shout a warning if anything is dislodged. Good group control and a zigzag ascent should be used where possible to minimise clients moving above others.

Navigational Errors - Navigational errors are possible but not a serious hazard.

Action - On the summit days leaders should have a record of their ascent route (height and bearing waypoints by GPS or combined compass and altimeter readings) in order to assure a safe retreat. A compass and altimeter or a GPS should always be carried by the leader.

Crevasse Hazard. There is a small risk of crevasse falls on the glacier on the normal route on both Suerococha and Leon. These can be partly hidden by the snow penitentes which are a regular feature of this route.

Action - On both glaciers all members must be roped up according to recognised practices, with a clearly designated leader on each rope. Except in an emergency, individual roped parties should remain in close contact with each other.

Avalanche. During or after recent snowfall there may be some avalanche hazard on the optional peak ascents. There is a considerable risk of serac avalanches from the face of Yerupaja and a route should be chosen carefully (or even abandoned ) if this is necessary.

Action - The peaks should not be climbed during heavy snowfall or for 24 hours after significant snowfall. After this time a careful assessment should be made of the snow condition by a leader experienced in avalanche hazard evaluation before planning any ascent.

Electrical Storms. These are infrequent but possible, commoner in the afternoon.

Action - During such storms all ridges and high areas should be avoided (or abandoned as quickly as practicable). Take care on the exposed ridge on Suerococha

Other Mountain Hazards. Other mountain hazards may be encountered. All such hazards should either be avoided or reduced using recognised procedures.

LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION

Good leadership and communication can significantly improve the safety (and will of course increase the enjoyment of a group in the mountains).

Action - The leader must be clear that their primary purpose on the expedition is to look after the health and well-being of the clients. The leader should be careful to monitor their own health and be honest about any problems they are having. The leader should operate only well within the bounds of their own fitness, experience and current health. The leader should also operate only within the abilities and fitness of the expedition members present. The leader has the power to remove a client from the expedition if their fitness and/or ability fall far short of the expectation as defined in the companies dossier and brochure and this problem is interfering with the safety or enjoyment of other clients. The leader must be prepared to make changes to the itinerary, or even abandon the expedition, if this is necessary due to the safety of any participant.

The expedition has a designated overall leader, who should take responsibility for the itinerary and actions of the group as a whole. This leader should give clear instructions to any assistant leaders, other staff or any client temporarily given charge of any subgroup. In the mountains normal practice will be for the leader or an assistant leader to be with the clients at all times except when clients are left in good health at a designated and equipped camp. However, minor operating problems (e.g. fitness), may result in clients being left without a leader at various times, both in valleys and on mountains. This should only be done for limited periods of a few hours, in good and stable weather and with clients in good health, and with clear instructions about when and where to regroup (preferably the same place).

While the group is mobile leaders should encourage a clear system of regrouping every hour (or more frequently if necessary) in order to assess the group as a whole and any individual needs. Leaders should also have a clear system for monitoring the last person in the group, preferably by visual contact.

In towns and cities clients are free to do as they please. Clients should inform the leader if they plan to travel beyond the town centre or immediate surroundings of the hotel.

Mercedario

First Written December 2003     Updated June 2022

AUTHOR
This risk assessment has been compiled by John Biggar, who has personally completed this itinerary in 2004 and climbed on the neighbouring peak of Aconcagua on nine occasions, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2008, 2010, 2016 and 2018. He has thity-one years experience of operating expeditions and holidays in South America under the trading name 'Andes', twenty-eight of these years have included operating in Argentina. John Biggar is a WMCI who has held the Mountaineering Instructor Certificate since 2002.

GENERAL HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN ARGENTINA

General safety standards. Although a well developed country some safety standards in Argentina are lower than at home. In some situations the same high safety standards that we have in the UK may not be applied. It is also fair to say that the population as whole has less informed and a more laid-back attitude to the risks of everyday life.

Natural hazards. The areas to be visited are in an area of considerable earthquake hazard. Severe weather could also cause catastrophic landslides and flooding, although these are less likely at the time of year we travel.

Driving. Driving standards and road and vehicle maintenance standards are reasonable but not as good as they are in the UK. There will be a small additional risk of death or injury in a traffic accident from these factors.

Action - Expedition leaders should use recommended contractors whenever possible and be prepared to use an alternative vehicle if necessary. They should monitor the drivers performance and be prepared to use an alternative driver if necessary. When leaders are driving themselves they should take regular breaks, at least every 2 hours.

Crime. Argentina has relatively low crime rates but Western tourists are at an increased risk of being victims because they can be recognised as wealthy. There is a very small risk of serious crime, including violent or sexual assault and mugging in and around Buenos Aires and Mendoza and a small risk of pickpocketing and minor theft.

Action - Expedition leaders should obtain up-to-date security advice immediately before the expedition departs and on arrival and be prepared to make any changes necessary to the itinerary. Expedition leaders should brief members with any relevant local security advice and general personal safety advice. Expedition members should behave in a polite, courteous and respectful manner towards all people. Expedition members should leave valuables in the hotel safe whenever possible and otherwise carry them in a concealed body belt or neck purse. Expedition members should remain within the safer central areas of Mendoza and Buenos Aires, particularly after dark. Expedition members should walk in a group after dark. Expedition members should refrain from drinking excessive alcohol and completely avoid any contact with illegal drugs. In the event of any incident members should not attempt to act heroically; hand over money - it is wise always to have approx. $40-50 in your pocket for this purpose.

Hotels. Fire safety standards are not as high as at home. Exits may not be as clearly marked or as easily accessible. Construction standards and electrical safety standards are not as good as at home and smoke alarms are very rare.

Action - Expedition members should not use any form of naked flame indoors (candles, stoves, smoking!). Expedition members should inform themselves of the best way to escape from the building before retiring overnight and keep a torch handy.

Hygiene. Food and general hygiene standards are not quite as high as at home. Stomach upsets are possible. On Aconcagua, due to poor mountain hygiene by other expeditions, more serious conditions such as giardia and amoebic dysentery are possible.

Action - Expedition members should have all vaccinations and inoculations as recommended by their GP. On Aconcagua expedition members should drink only water that has been recently purified (e.g. by boiling or iodine) Members should be wary of the following foods when prepared in cafes and restaurants: seafood (except fish) and any food that is not freshly cooked. Expedition leaders and members should ensure a good standard of hygiene is practised at campsites, especially with regard to drinking water and toilet.

First Aid

Action - All UK leaders should have a current first aid certificate and carry, or have quick access to, a first aid kit at all times.

Hospital and Medical Care. Hospital and Medical Care in Argentina is generally good, although not quite as high a standard as at home.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN THE MOUNTAINS

Camping. There is a risk of fire from stoves and candles. There is a theoretical risk of theft in most areas if items are left outside tents at night or unattended inside. However we have never previously experienced this type of theft in Argentina.

Action - All leaders and members should take great care when cooking and refilling stoves and fuel bottles. Whenever possible this should be done outside the tent. Torches should be used instead of candles in expedition members tents.

Minor slips and falls. All members will be exposed to a risk of slipping due to steep, uneven and unstable ground.

Action - Leaders and members should take the usual precautions to avoid such risks.

River Crossings. The main river on the walk in )and out) from Guanaquitos base camp has to be crossed several times. While not very large it will swell considerably in the afternoons in hot dry weather, particularly in January and February, and could potentially become uncrosable.

Action - Leaders should plan days to avoid the need for afternoon crossings.

Remoteness. The expedition may be up to three days walk and a half day drive from professional medical help for periods of time. Any evacuation will almost certainly have to be by foot or on horseback. Above base camp the terrain is largely above the operating ceiling for local helicopters.

Action - Expedition leaders should allow a higher than normal margin of safety for all activities undertaken high on Mercedario.

Altitude. At high altitudes there is an increased risk of medical problems, most obviously altitude illness.

Action - Leaders should visually and verbally check all members regularly for signs or symptoms of altitude illness. Any type of illness observed at altitude (above 3500m) should be considered as possibly indicative of an underlying altitude illness. It should be treated as such by descending if there is no improvement within 24 hours. Leaders should be familiar with methods of diagnosing altitude illness (e.g. Lake Louise) and methods of treating it (principally by early descent). Leaders should operate the expedition to prioritise the needs of those who are having problems and not those who aspire to go higher. Leaders should be aware that high on Mercedario evacuation could be more difficult and they should operate a higher margin of safety (i.e. earlier turn-around or evacuation) when assessing any potential altitude illness in this area.

Weather - There are serious and even life threatening risks from bad weather above base camp and slight risks from bad weather on the whole itinerary. Night time temperatures at high camps are typically -10ºC to -20ºC. High winds including gale and storm force winds, are extremely common, almost normal. It can snow at any time of year in these mountains and snow will lie as low as 2500m in December, 3000m in February. We have seen the following examples of severe weather over the years.

- One metre of fresh snow at Plaza Argentina base camp on Aconcagua (4200m) overnight.

- Winds of approx. 150 kph at 5500m, on neighbouring Aconcagua. Severe difficulty pitching tents and unable to walk against wind. Clients were blown over. (Crawling was still possible!).

- Blizzards at camp one on Aconcagua with virtually zero visibility and serious threat to tents.

- Regular winds of gale force or storm force.

- Combined wind and cold on summit day on neighbouring Aconcagua resulting in frozen eyes, frost damage to lips, frost-nip to hands and feet, with some risk of frostbite in extreme cases.

Action - Leaders should watch very carefully for deteriorating weather and be prepared to change plans (and probably descend) if necessary. The mountain should be abandoned in prolonged bad weather.

Warm clothes, (including several fleeces and/or down jackets, windproofs, hat, mitts and gloves) must be carried by all expedition members themselves at all times above base camp. Plastic boots are recommended, but modern leather boots with a yeti gaiter are acceptable. Leaders should personally carry a down jacket and bivi bag or else a sleeping bag in case of emergency.

Tents must be pitched carefully (with due consideration of the potential for strong winds) at all times. The leader must inspect campsites daily to check tents have been and remain securely pitched. Clients should be briefed in the best ways of pitching tents in severe winds, ideally before they have to do this! Tents left unattended should be internally weighted with large rocks (padded). Leaders should be aware and brief clients, that when pitching tents with rocks poor unprotected placement of the rocks can fray tent fabric and poles very quickly.

There is a possibility of actual injury from being blown over or losing footing in high winds.

Rockfall -There are slight risks from rockfall, for which expedition members should be briefed.

Action - Leaders should remain alert to this hazard, assess all areas, and particularly all campsites, for the risk of rockfall. In places they will need to ensure good group control to minimise this hazard. On continuous steep ground expedition members should be briefed to walk carefully with regard to dislodging stones and to shout a warning to others if anything is dislodged. A zigzag ascent should be used where possible to minimise time spent directly above or below other group members.

Navigational Errors - Navigational errors are possible in several areas and could pose a serious hazard if tents were not found in bad weather. A particular point of concern is the location of the safe descent from the summit ridge back to the La Ollada camp.

Action - The leader should be aware of the problem areas above and maintain a record of any critical points (height and bearing waypoints by GPS or combined compass/altimeter readings) in order to assure a safe retreat. In all problem areas they should monitor, and possibly brief, the group more carefully in order to avoid the possibility of one person becoming lost. Either a compass and altimeter, or GPS and spare batteries, should always be carried.

Avalanche. During or after recent snowfall there is likely to be avalanche hazard on the slopes above the high camp.

Action - The summit should not be attempted during snowfall or for 24 hours after significant snowfall, or when wind slab is suspected due to recent weather patterns. After this time a careful assessment should be made of the snow conditions by a leader experienced in avalanche hazard evaluation before planning any ascent.

Electrical Storms. These are rare but possible.

Action - During such storms all ridges and high areas should be avoided (or abandoned as quickly as practicable).

Other Mountain Hazards. All other mountain hazards may be encountered and should be anticipated and avoided or reduced using recognised procedures.

LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION

Good leadership and communication can significantly improve the safety and will of course increase the enjoyment of the group in the mountains.

Action - All leaders must be clear that their primary purpose on the expedition is to look after the health and well-being of the clients. All leaders should be careful to monitor their own health and be honest about any problems they are having, in particular with relation to fitness and altitude. All leaders should operate only well within the bounds of their own experience and current physical ability and within the abilities of the expedition members. All leaders must be prepared to make changes to the itinerary, or even abandon the expedition, if this is necessary due to the safety of any participant.

The expedition leader has overall responsibility for the itinerary and actions of the group as a whole. He or she should give clear instructions to any assistant leaders or any client temporarily given charge of a subgroup. In towns and cities clients should be left free to do as they please; the leader should advise them and should be advised by the client if they plan to travel beyond the town centre. In the mountains normal practice will be for the leader or an assistant leader to be with the clients at all times except when clients are left in good health at a designated and equipped camp. However minor operating problems (e.g. fitness, equipment failure) may result in clients being left without a leader at various times, both in valleys, high on the mountains and even on summit days. This should only be done for limited periods of a few hours, in good and stable weather and with all clients in good health. Clear instructions about when and where to regroup (preferably the same place) must be given.

While the whole group is mobile leaders and assistant leaders should encourage a clear system of regrouping (e.g. every hour or more frequently if necessary) in order to assess the group as a whole and any individual needs. Leaders should also have a clear system for monitoring the last person in the group, preferably by visual or vocal contact.

Ojos del Salado

GENERAL HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN CHILE & ARGENTINA

General safety standards. Although they are well developed countries some safety standards in Argentina and Chile are lower than at home. In some situations the same high safety standards that we have in the UK may not be applied. It is also fair to say that the population as whole has less informed and a more laid-back attitude to the risks of everyday life.

Natural hazards. The areas to be visited are in an area of considerable earthquake hazard. Severe weather could also cause catastrophic landslides and flooding.

Driving. Driving standards and road and vehicle maintenance standards are reasonable but not as good as they are in the UK. There will be a small additional risk of death or injury in a traffic accident from these factors.

Action - When driving vehicles themselves leaders should drive with care, take rest breaks every two hours, and adopt a more defensive approach to driving than when at home.

Crime. Argentina & Chile have relatively low crime rates, but Western tourists are at an increased risk of being victims because they can be recognised as wealthy. There is a very small risk of serious crime, including violent or sexual assault and mugging in and around Santiago, Buenos Aires and Copiapo and a small risk of pickpocketing and minor theft. The nearby city of Calama in Chile appears to be something of a crime hotspot.

Action - Expedition leaders should obtain up-to-date security advice immediately before the expedition departs and on arrival and be prepared to make any changes necessary to the itinerary. Expedition leaders should advise clients about any relevant local security issues and give general personal safety advice. Clients should behave in a polite, courteous and respectful manner towards all people. Clients should leave valuables in the hotel safe whenever possible and otherwise carry them in a concealed body belt or neck purse. Clients should walk in a group after dark or take a taxi. Clients should refrain from drinking more than a small amount of alcohol and completely avoid any contact with illegal drugs.

Accommodation. Fire safety standards are not as high as at home. Emergency exits may not be as clearly marked or as easily accessible. Construction standards and electrical safety standards are not as good as at home and smoke alarms are very rare.

Action - Clients should not use any form of naked flame indoors (candles, stoves, smoking!). Clients should inform themselves of the best way to escape from the building before retiring overnight and keep a torch handy.

Hygiene. Food and general hygiene standards are not quite as high as at home. Stomach upsets are possible.

Action - Clients should have all vaccinations and inoculations as recommended by their GP. Clients should drink only water that has been recently purified (e.g. by boiling) or is clearly from a safe source – e.g. clean & fresh snow. Clients should be wary of the following foods when prepared in cafes and restaurants: seafood (except fish) and any food that is not freshly cooked. Leaders and clients should ensure a good standard of hygiene is practised at campsites, especially with regard to drinking water and toilet.

First Aid

Action - All Leaders should have a current first aid certificate and carry, or have quick access to, a first aid kit at all times.

Hospital and Medical Care. Hospital and Medical Care in Chile & Argentina is generally good, although not quite as high a standard as at home.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN THE MOUNTAINS

Camping. There is a risk of fire from stoves and candles. There is a theoretical risk of theft in most areas if items are left outside tents at night or unattended inside. However we have not previously experienced this type of theft in this area.

Action - All leaders and clients should take great care when cooking and refilling stoves and fuel bottles. Whenever possible this should be done outside the tent. Torches should be used instead of candles in clients tents.

Minor slips and falls. All clients will be exposed to a risk of slipping due to steep, uneven and unstable ground.

Action - Leaders and members should take the usual precautions to avoid such risks. Lava flows and boulder fields formed from lava are particularly unstable and such ground should be crossed carefully.

Remoteness. This expedition may be up to two days walk and a half day drive from professional medical help for periods of time. At high altitudes vehicles may not start reliably and any such problem will increase the time needed to obtain assistance. Evacuation is most likely to have to be by foot or on horseback as helicopter availability is very unreliable and parts of the itinerary are above normal helicopter operating ceilings.

Action - Expedition leaders should allow a higher than normal margin of safety for all activities undertaken in the mountains and particularly for all activities high on Ojos del Salado.

Altitude. At high altitudes there is an increased risk of medical problems, most obviously altitude illness.

Action - Leaders should visually and verbally check all clients regularly for signs or symptoms of altitude illness. Any type of illness observed at altitude (above 3500m) should be considered as possibly indicative of an underlying altitude illness. It should be treated as such by descending if there is no improvement within 24 hours. Leaders should be familiar with methods of diagnosing altitude illness (e.g. Lake Louise) and methods of treating it (principally by early descent). Leaders should manage the expedition to prioritise the needs of those who are having problems and not those who aspire to go higher. Leaders should be aware that high on Ojos del Salado evacuation could be more difficult and they should operate a higher margin of safety (i.e. earlier evacuation) when assessing any potential altitude illness in this area.

Weather - There are serious and even life threatening risks from bad weather above base camp on Ojos del Salado and slight risks from bad weather on the whole itinerary. Night time temperatures at altitude are typically -10ºC to -20ºC. High winds including gale and storm force winds, are extremely common, almost normal. It can snow at any time of year in these mountains and snow will lie as low as 4000m in December, 4500m in February. I have seen the following examples of severe weather over the years.

- One metre of fresh snow at high camp (5500m) overnight.

- Winds of approx. 150 kph at 5500m, severe difficulty pitching tents and unable to walk against wind.

- Regular winds of gale force or storm force higher on the mountain.

- Combined wind and cold on summit day resulting in frozen eyes, frost damage to lips, frost-nip to hands.

Action - Leaders should watch very carefully for deteriorating weather and be prepared to change plans (and probably descend) if necessary. The mountain should be abandoned completely in prolonged bad weather.

Warm clothes, (including several fleeces and/or down jackets, windproofs, hat, mitts and gloves) must be carried by all clients themselves at all times above base camp. Plastic boots are recommended, but modern leather boots with a yeti gaiter are acceptable. Leaders should personally carry a down jacket and bivi bag or else a sleeping bag in case of emergency.

Tents must be pitched carefully (with due consideration of the potential for strong winds) at all times. The leader must inspect campsites daily to check tents have been and remain securely pitched. Clients should be briefed in the best ways of pitching tents in severe winds, ideally before they have to do this! Tents left unattended should be internally weighted with large rocks (padded). Leaders should be aware and brief clients, that when pitching tents with rocks poor (unprotected) placement of the rocks can fray tent fabric and poles very quickly.

There is a possibility of actual injury from being blown over or losing footing in high winds. In particular the summit pinnacle should not be attempted in high winds.

Rockfall - There are potential hazard areas from rockfall throughout the itinerary, with a higher risk on the summit pinnacle of Ojos del Salado and high on Tres Cruces, where the consequences from being hit are also more serious. Lava can be particularly unstable.

Action - Leaders should remain alert to this hazard, assess all areas, including all campsites, for the risk of rockfall. Leaders should watch out particularly for other parties, as many others on the mountain are inexperienced and/or suffering altitude illness. In certain places leaders will need to ensure good group control to minimise this hazard. Clients should be briefed to walk or climb carefully with regard to dislodging stones and to shout a warning to others if anything is dislodged. A zigzag ascent should be used where possible to minimise time spent above and/or below other group members.

Navigational Errors - Navigational errors are possible in several areas and could pose a serious hazard if tents were not found in bad weather.

Action - The leader should maintain a record of any critical points (height and bearing waypoints by GPS or combined compass and altimeter readings) in order to assure a safe retreat. In all problem areas they should monitor, and possibly brief, the group more carefully in order to avoid the possibility of one person becoming lost. Either a compass and altimeter, or GPS and spare batteries, should always be carried.

Avalanche. During or after recent snowfall there is a possibility of some minor avalanche hazard.

Action - After any big storm a careful assessment should be made of the snow conditions by a leader experienced in avalanche hazard evaluation before planning any ascent.

Electrical Storms. These are relatively rare but possible, more commonly in January and February. On the Chilean side of the mountain bad weather and storms are likely to be less visible before they arrive.

Action - During such storms all ridges and high areas should be avoided (or abandoned as quickly as practicable).

Other Groups. A good percentage of the climbers on Ojos del Salado are inexperienced and operating out of their depth.

Action - The leader and clients should not base their decision making or actual actions on what they see or hear of other groups doing. The leader should tactfully inform other groups on the mountain of potential problems he/she can anticipate them having.

Other Mountain Hazards. All other mountain hazards may be encountered and should be anticipated and avoided or reduced using recognised procedures.

LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION

Good leadership and communication can significantly improve the safety and will of course increase the enjoyment of the group in the mountains.

Action - All leaders must be clear that their primary purpose on the expedition is to look after the health and well-being of the clients. All leaders must be prepared to make changes to the itinerary, or even abandon the expedition, if this is necessary due to the safety of any participant. All leaders should be careful to monitor their own health and be honest about any problems they are having, in particular with relation to fitness and altitude. All leaders should operate only well within the bounds of their own experience and current physical ability and within the abilities of the expedition members.

The expedition leader, has overall responsibility for the itinerary and actions of the group as a whole. He or she should give clear instructions to any assistant or any client temporarily given charge of a subgroup. In the mountains normal practice will be for the leader or an assistant to be with the clients at all times except when clients are left in good health at a designated and equipped camp. However minor operating problems (e.g. fitness, equipment failure) may result in clients being left without a leader at various times, both in valleys, high on the mountains and even on summit days. This should only be done for limited periods of up to an hour or two, in good and stable weather and with all clients in good health. Clear instructions about when and where to regroup (preferably exactly the same place) must be given.

While the whole group is mobile leaders and assistants should encourage a clear system of regrouping (e.g. every hour or more frequently if necessary) in order to assess the group as a whole and any individual needs. Leaders should also have a clear system for monitoring the last person in the group, preferably by visual or vocal contact.

In towns and cities clients are free to do as they please; the leader should however advise them and should be advised by the client if they plan to travel beyond the town centre.

Peru 6000m+, Chile 6000m+ and other Cordillera Occidental peaks

Applies to expeditions to the volcanic peaks in southern Peru, northern Chile and on the Bolivian border.

First Written December 2004     Updated August 2022

AUTHOR
This risk assessment has been compiled by John Biggar, who has personally completed variations of this itinerary on twelve occasions, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2003, 2009, 2014, 2015 (twice), 2017 and 2018. He has thirty-one years experience of operating expeditions and holidays in South America under the trading name 'Andes', twenty-eight of these years have included operating in the Cordillera Occidental of Peru, Chile and Bolivia. John Biggar is a WMCI who has held the Mountaineering Instructor Certificate since 2002.

GENERAL STATEMENT - SAFETY AND RISK
This is an adventure holiday and by taking part in this itinerary all clients will be exposed to an element of risk beyond that found in everyday life in the UK. While all reasonable precautions should be taken to reduce these additional risks it is neither possible nor desirable to completely eliminate additional risks.
To keep things in perspective 'Andes' have taken over 665 people to South America over a thirty-one year period and only ever recorded the following incidents:-
Theft -- 4 minor theft incidents reported (value less than £50). 4 more serious cases (three of multiple possessions, one of tickets and passport).
Assault, Violence etc. – 0 cases on expedition.
Altitude Illness -- Out of 700+ client visits plus nearly 200 leader visits at June 2022 the majority (c. 80-90%) have been to over 4000m. We have had many minor cases of altitude illness where descent was not necessary. We have only had 15 more serious cases of AMS where descent was necessary. In all of these the client was able to descend on foot largely unaided. No prescription rugs were taken at the time.Injury from slips etc. -- 5 cases. One each of broken nose, sprained ankle, serious cuts & bruising, minor back injury plus bruising, severe back pain. Three of these incidents happened in hotels/restaurants
Cold Injury -- 2 cases of frostnip & 1 of minor frostbite on the same (Aconcagua) expedition. 1 more serious frostbite (left thumb) on Aconcagua January 2008. Also 1 snowblindness.
Severe exhaustion -- 2 cases.
Major Illness or Infection -- 2 cases, 1 of giardia, and 1 eye infection.
Animal Bite -- 1 case (Dog).

John Biggar has personally spent a total of over eighty months in the mountains of the Andes and never had any personal trouble from serious illness, theft or injury (other than a few stomach bugs!).

RISKS OF THIS ITINERARY AND MEASURES TO REDUCE THEM WHEN POSSIBLE
I have identified the following hazards as the principal additional risks of this itinerary. This is not a fully inclusive list.

GENERAL HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN CHILE & ARGENTINA

General safety standards. Although they are well developed countries some safety standards in Peru, Bolivia and Chile are lower than at home. In some situations the same high safety standards that we have in the UK may not be applied. It is also fair to say that the population as whole has less informed and a more laid-back attitude to the risks of everyday life.

Natural hazards. The areas to be visited are in an area of considerable earthquake hazard. Severe weather could also cause catastrophic landslides and flooding.

Driving. Driving standards and road and vehicle maintenance standards are reasonable but not as good as they are in the UK. There will be a small additional risk of death or injury in a traffic accident from these factors.

Action - When driving vehicles themselves leaders should drive with care, take rest breaks every two hours, and adopt a more defensive approach to driving than when at home.

Crime. In Peru, Bolivia and Chile Western tourists are at an increased risk of being victims because they can be recognised as wealthy. There is a very small risk of serious crime, including violent or sexual assault and mugging in and around Santiago, Arequipa and Calama in particular and a small risk of pickpocketing and minor theft. The city of Calama in Chile appears to be something of a crime hotspot.

Action - Expedition leaders should obtain up-to-date security advice immediately before the expedition departs and on arrival and be prepared to make any changes necessary to the itinerary. Expedition leaders should advise clients about any relevant local security issues and give general personal safety advice. Clients should behave in a polite, courteous and respectful manner towards all people. Clients should leave valuables in the hotel safe whenever possible and otherwise carry them in a concealed body belt or neck purse. Clients should walk in a group after dark or take a taxi. Clients should refrain from drinking more than a small amount of alcohol and completely avoid any contact with illegal drugs.

Accommodation. Fire safety standards are not as high as at home. Emergency exits may not be as clearly marked or as easily accessible. Construction standards and electrical safety standards are not as good as at home and smoke alarms are very rare.

Action - Clients should not use any form of naked flame indoors (candles, stoves, smoking!). Clients should inform themselves of the best way to escape from the building before retiring overnight and keep a torch handy.

Hygiene. Food and general hygiene standards are not quite as high as at home. Stomach upsets are possible.

Action - Clients should have all vaccinations and inoculations as recommended by their GP. Clients should drink only water that has been recently purified (e.g. by boiling) or is clearly from a safe source – e.g. clean & fresh snow. Clients should be wary of the following foods when prepared in cafes and restaurants: seafood (except fish) and any food that is not freshly cooked. Leaders and clients should ensure a good standard of hygiene is practised at campsites, especially with regard to drinking water and toilet.

First Aid

Action - All Leaders should have a current first aid certificate and carry, or have quick access to, a first aid kit at all times.

Hospital and Medical Care. Hospital and Medical Care in Peru, Bolivia and Chile is generally good, although not quite as high a standard as at home.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS OF OPERATING IN THE MOUNTAINS

Camping. There is a risk of fire from stoves and candles. There is a theoretical risk of theft in most areas if items are left outside tents at night or unattended inside. However we have not previously experienced this type of theft in this area.

Action - All leaders and clients should take great care when cooking and refilling stoves and fuel bottles. Whenever possible this should be done outside the tent. Torches should be used instead of candles in clients tents.

Minor slips and falls. All clients will be exposed to a risk of slipping due to steep, uneven and unstable ground.

Action - Leaders and members should take the usual precautions to avoid such risks. Lava flows and boulder fields formed from lava are particularly unstable and such ground should be crossed carefully.

Remoteness. These expeditions may be up to two days walk and a half day drive from professional medical help for periods of time. At high altitudes vehicles may not start reliably and any such problem will increase the time needed to obtain assistance  Evacuation is most likely to have to be by foot as helicopter availability is very unreliable and parts of the itinerary are above normal helicopter operating ceilings.

Action - Expedition leaders should allow a higher than normal margin of safety for all activities undertaken in the mountains and particularly for all activities higher on the peaks.

Altitude. At high altitudes there is an increased risk of medical problems, most obviously altitude illness.

Action - Leaders should visually and verbally check all clients regularly for signs or symptoms of altitude illness. Any type of illness observed at altitude (above 3500m) should be considered as possibly indicative of an underlying altitude illness. It should be treated as such by descending if there is no improvement within 24 hours. Leaders should be familiar with methods of diagnosing altitude illness (e.g. Lake Louise) and methods of treating it (principally by early descent). Leaders should manage the expedition to prioritise the needs of those who are having problems and not those who aspire to go higher. Leaders should be aware that high on some peaks evacuation could be more difficult and they should operate a higher margin of safety (i.e. earlier evacuation) when assessing any potential altitude illness in this area.

Weather - There are serious and even life threatening risks from bad weather above base camp on the peaks and slight risks from bad weather on the whole itinerary. Night time temperatures at altitude are typically -10ºC to -20ºC. High winds including gale and storm force winds, are possible, but not nomal. It can snow at any time of year in these mountains

Action - Leaders should watch very carefully for deteriorating weather and be prepared to change plans (and probably descend) if necessary. The mountain should be abandoned completely in prolonged bad weather.

Warm clothes, (including several fleeces and/or down jackets, windproofs, hat, mitts and gloves) must be carried by all clients themselves at all times above base camp. Plastic boots are recommended, but modern leather boots with a yeti gaiter are acceptable. Leaders should personally carry a down jacket and bivi bag or else a sleeping bag in case of emergency.

Tents must be pitched carefully (with due consideration of the potential for strong winds) at all times. The leader must inspect campsites daily to check tents have been and remain securely pitched. Leaders should be aware and brief clients, that when pitching tents with rocks, a poor (unprotected) placement of the rocks can fray tent fabric and poles very quickly.

Rockfall - There are potential hazard areas from rockfall on some of the peaks, particularly Sajama, Parinacota and Pomerape where surprisingly large (house sized blocks have been seen falling. Lava fileds which may have to be crossed can be particularly unstable.

Action - Leaders should remain alert to this hazard, assess all areas, including all campsites, for the risk of rockfall. Leaders should watch out particularly for other parties, as many others on the mountain are inexperienced and/or suffering altitude illness. In certain places leaders will need to ensure good group control to minimise this hazard. Clients should be briefed to walk or climb carefully with regard to dislodging stones and to shout a warning to others if anything is dislodged. A zigzag ascent should be used where possible to minimise time spent above and/or below other group members.

Navigational Errors - Navigational errors are possible in several areas and could pose a serious hazard if tents were not found in bad weather.

Action - The leader should maintain a record of any critical points (height and bearing waypoints by GPS or combined compass and altimeter readings) in order to assure a safe retreat. In all problem areas they should monitor, and possibly brief, the group more carefully in order to avoid the possibility of one person becoming lost. Either a compass and altimeter, or GPS and spare batteries, should always be carried.

Crevasse Hazard. There is a small risk of crevasse falls on a few of the mountains in the Cordillera Occidental. Crevasses can be found on Pomerape, Sajama, Coropuna and perhaps Solimana and Ampato.

Action - The hazards of glacier travel should be pointed out clearly to clients. Clients must be instructed and monitored to ensure they use the rope effectively to minimise the risks of a serious crevasse fall. This should be done according to recognised practices, with a clearly designated leader on each rope.

Avalanche. During or after recent snowfall there is a possibility of some minor avalanche hazard.

Action - After any big storm a careful assessment should be made of the snow conditions by a leader experienced in avalanche hazard evaluation before planning any ascent.

Electrical Storms. These are relatively rare but possible, more commonly in the December to March wet season.

Action - During such storms all ridges and high areas should be avoided (or abandoned as quickly as practicable).

Other Mountain Hazards. All other mountain hazards may be encountered and should be anticipated and avoided or reduced using recognised procedures.

LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION

Good leadership and communication can significantly improve the safety and will of course increase the enjoyment of the group in the mountains.

Action - All leaders must be clear that their primary purpose on the expedition is to look after the health and well-being of the clients. All leaders must be prepared to make changes to the itinerary, or even abandon the expedition, if this is necessary due to the safety of any participant. All leaders should be careful to monitor their own health and be honest about any problems they are having, in particular with relation to fitness and altitude. All leaders should operate only well within the bounds of their own experience and current physical ability and within the abilities of the expedition members.

The expedition leader, has overall responsibility for the itinerary and actions of the group as a whole. He or she should give clear instructions to any assistant or any client temporarily given charge of a subgroup. In the mountains normal practice will be for the leader or an assistant to be with the clients at all times except when clients are left in good health at a designated and equipped camp. However minor operating problems (e.g. fitness, equipment failure) may result in clients being left without a leader at various times, both in valleys, high on the mountains and even on summit days. This should only be done for limited periods of up to an hour or two, in good and stable weather and with all clients in good health. Clear instructions about when and where to regroup (preferably exactly the same place) must be given.

While the whole group is mobile leaders and assistants should encourage a clear system of regrouping (e.g. every hour or more frequently if necessary) in order to assess the group as a whole and any individual needs. Leaders should also have a clear system for monitoring the last person in the group, preferably by visual or vocal contact.

In towns and cities clients are free to do as they please; the leader should however advise them and should be advised by the client if they plan to travel beyond the town centre.

Peru First Ascents